Oil : 3,096,000 tons (70.7%)
Coal : 1,243,000 tons (28.4%)
Gas : 41,000 tons (0.9%)
The sources of these major pollutants are:
Transportation : 47.5%
Industry : 29.5%
Electric Utilities : 14.2%
Heating* : 8.8%
* This factor is decreasing due to changing fuel sources.
a. Sulfur Dioxides (SO2)
| Concentration & Location | Areas exceeding air quality standars |
| Source | |
| Environmental Standard | Air Quality Standards of SO2 in Korea
annual mean 0.03 ppm daily mean 0.14 ppm hourly mean 0.25 ppm |
| Measures by government | Adopt methods which use low sulfur fuel and clean fuel
in all facilities. |
Thus the data of Ulsan is not included separately.
b. Nitrogen Dioxides (NO2)
| Concentration & Location | Areas exceeding air quality standards
Long term excess areas (annual excess) : not found Short term excess areas ( daily, hourly excess): Seoul, Ansan |
| Source | |
| Environmental Standard | Air Quality Standards of NO2 in Korea.
annual mean 0.05 ppm daily mean 0.08 ppm hourly mean 0.15 ppm |
| Measures by government |
c. TSP
| Concentration & Location | Areas exceeding air quality standards
Long term excess areas(annual excess) : not found Short term excess areas(daily, hourly excess) : Seoul |
| Source | |
| Environmental Standard | Air Quality Standards of TSP in Korea |
d. PM - 10(Particulate Matter)
| Concentration & Location | Areas exceeding air quality standards
Long term excess areas (anuual excess) : Teagu, Anyang Short term excess areas(daily, hourly excess): Seoul, Anyang, Inchon, Pusan, Teagu |
| Source | |
| Environmental Standard |
e. Hydrocarbons (H/C):
| Concentration & Location | |
| Source | |
| Environmental Standard | Air Quality Standards of HC in Korea
No standards of HC found in the ?95 Environmental Statistics Yearbook, Ministry of Environment. |
f. Photochemical Oxidants (Ox):
| Concentration & Location | Areas exceeding air Quality standards
Long term excess areas(annual excess) : not found Short term excess areas ( daily, hourly excess) : Seoul, Chunchon |
| Source | |
| Environmental Standard | Air Quality Standards of Ox in Korea
8 hours? mean : 0.06 ppm 1 hour mean : 0.1 ppm |
| Measures by government | An ozone alarm system operations in Seoul since July
1995. Seoul does not have a definite schedule to reduce emission of Ox. |
g. CO
| Concentration & Location | Areas exceeding air quality standards
Short term excess areas ( daily, hourly excess) : not found |
| Source | |
| Environmental Standard | Air Quality Standards of CO in Korea
8 hours? mean : 9 ppm 1 hour mean : 25 ppm |
| Human Health | Source: Research results from State of California. |
| Ecology | not known |
| Economic Activities | not known |
| Government | Reduce legal limits of pollutants by stages:
Introduce ?step by step approach? to reduce air pollution. Ultimately the legal limits of pollutants would be equal to those of developed countries by 1999. 1st stage : from 1991 to 1994 2rd stage : from 1995 to 1998 3rd stae : after 1999 |
| Discriminating management of business sectors causing air
pollution.
Business sectors are divided into 4 categories : blue, green, yellow and red. Red are receiving more frequent inspections by the government. - Results of advisory visits and inspections in 1994.- total number of businesses : 28,090 places total number of inspections : 54,456 times mandatory changes required : 3,799 places of business Reduction of SOx Most SOx produced by the burning of gas and coal by industry, and heating, transport and generation facilities. The government recommends adopting "fuel substitution" to reduce SOx using low sulfur fuel and clean fuel (LNG,LPG) in industry, heat supply facilities and vehicles. The government does not recommend reduction of SO2 by desulfurization of exhaust gas. Measures to reduce vehicle pollution *The present condition - Number of vehicles in 1994 : 7,404,347 - Amount of air pollutants emitted by vehicles : 1,645,000 tons - Percentage of air pollution material by vehicles : 36.3 % - Sorts of air pollutants : CO, HC, NOx *Reduction measures - Strengthen emission standards for vehicles by 2002 to be equal to those of developed countries. - Enlarge the supply of low pollution vehicles by using "three way catalytic converters'. - Strengthen emission standards for in-use vehicles. Measures to Reduce TSP Make it obligatory for businesses to install preventive facilities and use clean fuel (LNG, LPG) to reduce TSP emitted in the manufacturing process. Introduce guidelines to minimize the occurrence of dust. Measures for other pollutants Introduce guidelines for volatile organic compounds. Definite control measures are not yet established, but are planned after 1998. Measures for acid rain. Acid rain is caused by air pollutants. By following suggested controls for other pollutants, and by cooperating with other countries, acid rain can be controlled. | |
| NGOs | <NGOs' Position and Activities to Promote Air
Quality>
~Is available data on air quality reliable?~ An air quality monitoring network is established with 89 stations in 47 cities of Korea (20 in Seoul, 7 in Pusan, 5 in Taegu, 3 in Inchon, 3 in Kwangju, 3 in Taejon). This network monitors 5 pollutants (TSP, SO2,CO2,NO2,O). It is not extensive enough to measure data in all regions; to show the complete situation. the number of monitoring stations is too small in certain regions. In addition, the apparatus used is not fully functional in nearly 40% of existing monitoring stations.. ~Air quality monitoring carried out by NGOs~ From 1993 to 1995, Korean NGOs measured the air quality of NO2. 800。ュ12,000 places are checked every six months by simple measuring instruments. The purpose of this monitoring is to help people understand the seriousness of air pollution and to help make effetive environmental policy. This can be achieved by knowing the differences of air quality in the different regions. ~Research on the actual condition of "air pollution index billboard"~ Korean NGOs researched the situation of elective "air pollution index billboards" installed in 18 places in 13 regions during 11。ュ19 October, 1994. They considered working conditions, ease of monitoring, and visibility of sign indicating pollutants measured. They found no signs operating normally. Korean NGOs urge the Ministry of Environment and the city of Seoul to maintain normal operation of "air pollution index billboards". ~Campaign to reduce air pollution from holiday traffic~ On festive days, NGOs distribute printed material to people returning to their hometowns. These pamphlets let people know the severity of Korean air pollution and suggest ways to reduce pollution caused by cars. ~Cooperation with citizens in heavily polluted districts ~ Korean NGOs try to resolve air pollution problems caused by factories located in Shindorim-dong, Seoul. We do research on air pollutants and educate the inhabitants of areas affected by stench and noise pollution to understand the real problems and try to protect their own environmental rights. ~Undertake research into the degree of metal corrosion caused by air pollution~ |
5 of RAINS-ASIA.
ACID RAIN IN NORTHEAST ASIA :
SULFER EMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION BY COUNTRY, 1990
source : G. Carmichael and R. Arndt, ?Long Range Transport and Deposition of Sulfur in
Asia?, Chapter 5 in RAINS-ASIA: An Assessement Model for Acid Rain in Asia, March
1995, Table 5.3.
unit : Annual sulfur deposition, 103 tons S/year
(unit: tonnage/year)
| GHGs | Basic Year
1990 |
Prediction in Business-as-Usual(BaU)
2000 Later(specify:) | |
| CO2(total) | |||
| (Industry) | |||
| (Transport) | |||
| (Energy) | |||
| (Livelihood) | |||
| CFCs | |||
| CH4 | |||
| N2O | |||
# Major policies related to respective energy consuming sectors#
*Carbon dioxide reduction policy in household sector
Increased income has brought social changes in general, therefore mere regulations on energy consumption or cost are no longer effective. Establish basic principles by legislating minimum regulations for each consumption sector, within socially reasonable scope.
Place emphasis on measures to provide the basis for energy saving systems that support energy conservation and expansion of social overhead capital.
Other important measures include mandatory indication of energy efficiency level on home appliances and expansion of regional heating systems and gas pipe lines.
*Carbon dioxide reduction policy in commercial sector
Set up measures in recognition of the fact that considerable amounts of energy
are consumed by large buildings, and avoid making consumption-restraint regulations that disturb liberal activities in the commercial sector.
The imposing of energy-conserving measures in the construction stage should be emphasized rather than the saving of energy through consumption in large buildings. Such preparatory measures apply to insulation, facilities, equipment, construction plans and energy-control systems.
Provide certification for energy-conserving buildings and incentives for introduction of new technology.
Provide certification for successful energy-conserving devicesincluding heating and cooling systems.
Set up an overall energy-saving program for large buildings and allow buildings to become members of such a program.
Extend the gas heating system, reinforce natural lighting designs and develop solar generation systems for buildings.
*Carbon dioxide reduction policy in the transportation sector
Existing policies concentrate on the consumer's economy of transportation; 10 shift vehicle operation, car pool
Encouraging the use of small-size vehicles and public transportation is another negative policy since its effectiveness depends on consumers' cooperation.
Policy should be directed toward basic and comprehensive measures such as developing and supplying energy-saving vehicles, expanding social overhead capital, providing tax reform and establishing control standards for the fuel consumption efficiency rate of commercial vehicles, rather than reducing the transportation demand, which is already on the rise.
Key measures include improving the fuel efficiency of vehicles, developing
alternative energy, improving the transportation system, expanding basic
facilities and reforming the related tax system.
*Carbon dioxide reduction policy in industrial sector
The industrial sector accounts for more than half of the total energy consumption and thus plays the key role in reducing carbon dioxide.
The industrial sector accounts for 70% of the total energy-saving potential.
Especially the rationalization of energy use in manufacturing industry has become a national task. However, lack of technology and investment has led to the failure of improving energy consumption efficiency.
Relatively poor financial support for developing energy-saving technology : According to data from 1992, such finacnial only reached 4.6% of the level in Japan and 0.8% of the US standard.
Speed up the development of energy-efficient devices and promote the introduction and transfer of successful energy saving technology from overseas.
Introduce plants for heating mergers and set up plans to recycle and utilize used energy.
Increase financial support and tax favors for investment in energy-saving facilities.
#Energy/carbon tax and emission bidding system#
*Energy/carbon tax
The carbon dioxide emission level in Korea is relatively higher than in other countries. Levying an energy/carbon tax would lead to a considerable rise in costs.
Industrial restructuring to induce overall energy efficiency and conservation is required as a long-term countermeasure. It is necessary to provide financial incentives including an energy/carbon tax, in order to be ready for international environment regulations such as the Climate Change Convention.
Economic measures should gradually be implemented alongside direct regulations rather than being introduced suddenly.
*Emission bidding system
This system acknowledges the assigning of carbon emission quotas to countries
and the trade of such rights. It is generally practiced in the US but Korea has
not yet enacted such a system. However, applying of such a system is being
widely discussed among the OECD countries. Concrete review of the system is
required.
#Policies on alternative energy and energy conservation#
*Alternative energy
Increase the natural gas supply.
Decrease anthracite coal consumption.
Expand nuclear power generation : In 1993, 9 facilities are in operation, constituting 40% of overall power production. An additional 14 facilities will be opened by 2006.
Increase of LPG demand in the transportation sector :In 1993, 5,141,000 TOE of LPG made up 24.3% of the total energy consumption in the transportation sector.
Enhance alternative energy supplies :In 1993, only 0.1% of total energy use came from alternative energy sources.
*Energy saving policy
Seriously pushed ahead after the second oil shock, this was implemented not only in the energy supply sector but also in the energy consumption area as a whole. It included a wide range of policies for regulation, financial support, and setting prices, including simple consumption policy.
However, this policy failed to draw public participation.
General Environment Policy
Setting up of air pollution standards for the following 7 materials : H2,SO3, CO2, NO2, O3, particulate materials, HC.
Control on emissions of air pollutants such as H2So3 has partially succeeded, but controls on other air pollutants are very limited.
Regulation of density of air pollutants is no less than that in developed countries, but control of total emission amount and technical control is neglected.
There is no regulation of CO2 and CH4.
Forestry Policy
*Policy for maintenance of CO2 absorption
Maintaining forest preservation under legal protection. In 1993, the total designated forest preservation area is 1,325,000 ha and makes up 20% of the total forest area.
Forest protection through preventing insect damage, and forest fires, and building sand embarkments.
*Policy to expand CO2 absorption and storage
Building up forest resources : plans to raise the current rate of man-made forests from 31% to 50% by 2040.
Cultivating forest resources : the total enforced cultivating area in 1993 is 233,000 ha.
Promote afforestration abroad
Land Use Policy
Formulate energy-conserving cities and their regional structures.
Establish a policy of less emission of CO2 in the transportation system.
Protection and management of forests.
Set up measures to counter global warming.
| Temperature | Reserch conducted by inter-government Panel on Climate
Change(IPCC) in 1992 revealed that when production of carbon dioxide
increase two times, the temperature on the earth?s surface beneath
the tropospher in expected to rise by 1.5 - 4.5 degrees Celsius ( an
average increase of 2.5 degrees Celsus).
Since Korea is situated in the middle latitudes, the temperature in Korea is expected to rise up to the average increase level of the entire earth. The Meteorological Office of Korea and a local university conducted joint research in 1994 on temperature and precipitation in the Korean peninsula. The research predicted that if the production of carbon dioxide doubles, the average temperature in the Korean peninsula will increase 1.0 - 4.0 degrees Celsius and the most probable average increase will be slightly higher than 1.0 degree Celsius. A study on temperature changes, which was conducted with the use of the empirical orthogonal function(EOF), revealed that the temperature increase rate in the norhtern part of the Korean peninsula will be higher than the southern part, while the eastern coast of central Korea will witness a little higher temperature rise than along the western coast of central Korea. |
| Precipitation &
Floods |
The following is based on the 1993 weather forecast of the Meteorological Office of Korea: If the carbon dioxide concentration doubles, the annual average precipitation will increase by approximately 15%, while evaporation will increase by 5%. The average flow of Korea?s four major rivers (Hangang, Nakdonggang, Kumkang, Yongsangang and Somjingang ) will increase by about 25%. Although it is hard to predict whether or not flooding will occur more frequently than now, it is likely that if precipitation increases by 25% in summer, flooding , if it occcurs, will be much more intense than at present, therefore, to make flood control facilities such as dams, dikes, reservoirs and bridges stronger by modifying their standards. |
| Drought &
Desertification |
It is anticipated that climate change will bring an increase
in precipation, but this is merely an assumption since the Korean
peninsula has a wide difference in precipitation between summer (+35%) and
winter (- 25%). The climate change is likery to cause severe droughts and
floods.
Therefore, full preparation is required to prevent drought damage and to improve the flood control system. |
| Sea Level?s Rise
& Coastal Area |
The rise in the sea level is expected to affect_ _
severity of Korean air pollution and suggest ways to reduce
pollution caused by cars. Cooperation with
citizens in heavily polluted districts ~ |
| Ecosystem(land) | If the annual average temperature increases by 2
degrees Celsius, it is expected that subtropical-temperate floral
zones will become bigger, while the temperate-cold-subarctic flozal zones
will become smaller. Plants and floral groups which are feared to
disappear include 1) alpine floras, 2) floras growing only in certain
island areas, 3) floral groups whose distribution is extremely
limited , 4) front-running population in distributions and 5)
species which are slow in moving to other areas in climate change.
If the temperature rises by 2 degrees by about 30 days from the
present 210-280 days to 220-320 days a year. If the temperature
rises by 4 degrees Celsius, the plant duration will be 230-340 days.
Therefore, the southwestern coastal area, the southern coastal area
and the southen part of the eastern coast of Korea will become a
subtropical zone without wintry days.
The cultivation area of wheat, barley and the like will advance and expand northward. Temperate zone fruits such as apples, grapes, pears and peaches are expected to face difficulty in survival. |
| Ecosystem
(aquatic) |
Oceanic changes which will accompany the climate change are
expected to affect the flow of currents and the entire aquatic ecosystem
as well.
A change of 2 degrees Celsius will widely affect the lives of fish - their geographical distribution , growth, breeding and migration. There will be remarkable changes in the North Pacific marine resources: sub-tropical fish will prosper, while sub-arctic fish will decline. The habitat of Alaskan pollack and salmon will become smaller and that of tuna will become bigger if the sea water temperture goes up. If no cold water spheres remain in the Yellow Sea before the onset of summer because of the earth?s warming, or if no cold water spheres can form because of stronger Kuroshio Currents, it will force cold-water fish to disappear from the Yellow Sea. On the other hand, the rise in the sea water temperature will help fish living in the warm water of the sea surface to penetrate into the Korean waters from the East China Sea. Korean waters will become suitable for the breeding of mackeral pike and sardines. |
| Diseases & Pests | The earth?s warming will increase summer epidemics and
infant mortality.
The temperature rise will increase the concentration of oxidized substances, which will adversely affect human health. Vector-borne diseases, which are spread by mosquitoes and parasites, will move closer to the polar regions. |
| Others |
(1). Stronger Commitments for the Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions
a. Proceedings of the First Session of the Conference of the Parties (COP1)
An agreement was reached to begin a two-year period of negotiations for a protocol that addresses the need to limit the emission of greenhouse gases after the year 2000. A team was requested to draft the treaty by 1997. (Berlin Mandate)
It was agreed in principle that only the countries who were supposed to make commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Annex 1 countries) will be requested to made additional commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and that developing countries will be excluded from the additional reduction commitments.
(Under the current Climate Change Convention, only 24 developed countries and 11 East European countries (listed in Annex 1) are encouraged to seek to stabilize their carbon dioxide emissions at 1990 levels by the year 2000. There are no commitments relating to after 2000.)
b. Position of Korean NGOs
The final agreement reached in COP1 contains ambiguous and vague statements.
Developed countries and Annex I countries should strive to further reduce greenhouse gas emissions (in addition to those controlled by the Montreal Agreement) by elaborating policies and measures, as well as by setting quantified limitation and reduction objectives within specified time-frames such as 2005 and 2010, for their anthropogenic emissions.
It is not proper to request developing countries to make additional commitments simply for sharing of historical responsibility or for ensuring fairness in development. It is important that developing countries fulfill their commitments prescribed in the current Convention (adoption of measures to minimize causes of climate change and conducting of surveys in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.Developed countries should be urged to provide financial support for such developing countries' activities.
The role of NGOs in developing countries is very important. While playing a watchdog role, NGOs should participate in the process of setting up government policies on climate change.
c. Position of the Korean Government
The government considers that there is a need to further increase the commit
ments. It also supports the draft protocol submitted by the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS). But it insists that "only developed countries should further strengthen their commitments at the present stage."
(2). Joint Implementation (JI)
a. Proceedings of COP1
The final agreement was to initiate a pilot phase for JI among industrialized countries and, "on a voluntary basis, with non-Annex 1 Parties that so request", by 2000. A set of concrete criteria will be set up after the pilot phase. This way, the developed countries got their JI; the developing countries got some of their criteria.
It was also agreed that reductions in greenhouse gas emissions to be made by developed countries in developing countries with the former's investment during the pilot phase would not be regarded as achievements of developed countries.
b. Position of Korean NGOs
Joint implementation (JI) projects must be compatible with and supportive of national environment and development priorities and strategies. JI funds should be additional to financial obligations of developed nations to GEF and current official development assistance (ODA) flows. (Above was agreed.)
If this is the case, does it mean that only the countries whose ODA contributions are 0.7% or more of their GNP will be allowed to take part in the JI projects? If so, only a few developed countries will be eligible. This is an encouragement, not an obligation. Under such circumstances, how many developed countries will be interested in taking part in JI projects?
In undertaking the JI projects, there is the possibility for developed countries to lay the blame for climate change on developing countries, instead of making their own efforts in their own countries. Another aspect of importance regarding this matter is that developing countries are not in a position to conduct fair negotations with developed nations. It is quite possible, therefore, that developed countries will make developing countries a place for selling their technologies.
c. Position of the Korean Government
The government thinks that JI has the potential of contributing to protection of the global environment.
When the JI program is launched, there is much room for Korea to take advantage of it.
(3). Transportation Industry
a. A cycling parade was held on Earth Day (April 23, 1995)
b. A "use-small-engine-cars" campaign was conducted.
(4). Education and Information Activities
a. An International Workshop on the Issue of Climate Change (1994) was organized.
b. An education and motivation campaign on energy conservation was held.